The author at the Mulawarman Museum, Tenggarong, East Kalimantan, is set against the backdrop of the Dayak's huma huts/fields, which depict the nomadic era, before they settled in longhouses. The thinking/concept of Dayak livelihoods around the 4th to 1,000 AD. Photo credit: Masri Sareb Putra.
SEKADAU - The Dayak Research Center (DRC): When talking about "History," it is impossible to ignore the four dominant, interconnected, and complementary elements:
The author at the Mulawarman Museum, Tenggarong, East Kalimantan, is set against the backdrop of the Dayak's huma huts/fields, which depict the nomadic era, before they settled in longhouses. The thinking/concept of Dayak livelihoods around the 4th to 1,000 AD. Photo credit: Masri Sareb Putra.
1. Who are the key figures?
2. What are the events?
3. Where is the setting (place and time)?
4. What are the historical evidences/facts, such as artifacts, ceramics, inscriptions, documents, and even mythology.
Fortunately, the history of the Dayak contains all these elements, and even more so, it is complete. This narrative is drawn from the sources of Blust (1967), Ave (1972), Lubis (1977), and Masri (2010).
The origin of the term "Dayak"
The term "Dayak" was first introduced by the Banjarmasin controller, Hogendorff, in 1757 in his report to the Netherlands. Hogendorph used the term "Dajak" as a collective label to describe the indigenous inhabitants of Borneo, distinguishing them from migrants residing along the coastal areas.
In the Dutch lexicon, "Dajak" has a counterpart in the term "binnenlander," which literally means "from here and in this place (Borneo), not from anywhere else." This classification not only served as a colonial construct but also underscored the unique identity of the Dayak people as the original custodians of the island.
Over centuries, the Dayak have been recognized for their adaptability, cultural resilience, and deep connection to their environment, which is evident in their evolving livelihoods.
The Hunting and Gathering Era (Niah Cave - 10,000 BC)
During this era, the Dayak people’s lives heavily depended on natural resources. They relied on hunting wild animals using spears and blowpipes and gathering forest produce to meet their daily needs. Hunting was conducted on foot, often accompanied by trained hunting dogs that helped track prey in the dense forests. Their lifestyle was highly subsistent, with no knowledge of agriculture or animal husbandry. They lived directly off what nature provided, fostering a deep connection between the people and their environment.
Every hunting activity required high skill levels, utilizing simple tools crafted from local resources like bamboo and stone. The forest, with its rich biodiversity, not only served as a source of sustenance but also provided shelter and cultural identity to the Dayak community.
The Dayak people of this era also possessed extensive knowledge of the flora and fauna surrounding them. They could distinguish between edible plants, those used for medicinal purposes, and poisonous ones. This expertise was passed down orally from generation to generation.
Without a written system, their collective memory became the repository of all their wisdom.
The Transition to Agrarian Era (10,000 BC - 1900 AD)
This period marked a significant transformation in the Dayak people’s way of life as they began incorporating agrarian practices into their daily routines. This shift was driven by the need for more stable food sources and a growing understanding of their environment. The transition is divided into two key phases:
- 10,000 BC - 4 AD: The Dayak began experimenting with early forms of agriculture, such as planting root crops and small-scale cultivation of grains. Farming was conducted alongside traditional hunting and gathering, which still played a vital role in their subsistence. Slash-and-burn agriculture, also known as shifting cultivation, was the predominant method. This technique involved clearing forested areas for planting and then allowing them to regenerate after several years of use. Such methods reflected their deep respect for the environment and their desire to maintain ecological balance. Hunting, however, remained critical, providing essential protein and reinforcing cultural practices tied to forest life.
- 500 AD - 1900 AD: By this period, farming had become more sophisticated. The Dayak people started cultivating a wider variety of crops, including rice, which became a staple food. Padi gunung (upland rice) was grown on dry fields rather than flooded paddies, utilizing the fertile soil of cleared forest areas. Fishing also emerged as a complementary activity, leveraging the abundant rivers and streams of Kalimantan. These water sources not only provided fish but also supported irrigation and transportation. Bartering systems developed, enabling the exchange of surplus crops, fish, and other goods with neighboring communities. This exchange facilitated the spread of ideas and techniques, further enhancing their agricultural practices.
In this era, farming tools evolved. Simple instruments like wooden digging sticks were replaced by iron hoes and machetes, which increased efficiency in land preparation and harvesting. Communal farming practices fostered cooperation and social cohesion within Dayak villages. Rituals and ceremonies became intertwined with agricultural activities, celebrating planting and harvesting seasons and seeking blessings for bountiful yields.
The integration of agrarian practices did not diminish their reliance on the forest. The Dayak continued to collect forest products such as rattan, resin, and medicinal plants, which were essential for trade and domestic use. This dual reliance on farming and forest resources created a balanced and sustainable way of life, ensuring the survival and growth of their communities.
Moreover, the introduction of external influences through trade with coastal and neighboring inland communities brought new crops, tools, and knowledge. For example, crops like bananas, taro, and later maize were adopted into their farming systems. These exchanges enriched their agricultural repertoire and strengthened their economic ties with the wider region.
The Modern and Post-Modern Era (1900 - 2024)
With the introduction of external influences and economic changes, the livelihoods of the Dayak people continued to evolve. This era can be divided into 3 phases:
- 1900 - 1980: The livelihoods of the Dayak people began to diversify. In addition to farming, they developed activities like rubber tapping and animal husbandry. Rubber became a significant commodity traded in local and international markets. Careers as government employees and teachers also began to emerge, especially in areas connected to formal education systems. Education became a key factor in opening access to new economic opportunities.
- 1980 - 2000: Livelihood activities from the previous phase persisted. However, careers as officials started becoming a viable option for some Dayak individuals, marking their increased involvement in modern governance systems. Improved access to education allowed younger generations to pursue careers outside traditional sectors. Infrastructure development also opened new opportunities for trade and social mobility.
- 2000 - 2024: The primary focus shifted to the palm oil plantation sector, which became the dominant livelihood. At the same time, many Dayak individuals worked as government employees, teachers, or officials. This era also showcased an improvement in living standards, evident in the construction of modern homes, ownership of vehicles like cars, and the clean, polished appearance of the Dayak community. The influence of a market-based economy became prominent, with palm oil plantations symbolizing newfound prosperity. However, this era also brought new challenges, such as environmental impacts and the loss of some local traditions.
A long journey from subsistence living to integration into the global economy
The Dayak community during this period demonstrated remarkable adaptability. They not only capitalized on new economic opportunities but also actively participated in discussions about land rights and environmental sustainability. Younger generations became increasingly aware of the importance of preserving their cultural heritage amid globalization.
From hunting and gathering during the Niah Cave era to becoming part of a palm oil-based economy, each stage highlights their adaptability to changing environmental, social, and economic conditions. This progression has brought material advancements as well as challenges in maintaining traditional values amidst modernization. The Dayak people have proven to be a resilient community, preserving their identity while embracing the changes of the times.
The evolution of Dayak livelihoods reflects a long journey from subsistence living to integration into the global economy.
The Transformation of the Dayak People Since Indonesia’s Reform Era
Since the Indonesian Reform Era began in 1998, the Dayak people have undergone significant transformations in various aspects of life.
In the past, they were not only marginalized but also systematically eliminated during the New Order era. The government at the time forced them to dismantle their traditional longhouses under baseless justifications, effectively erasing a vital part of their cultural identity.
Read Palm Oil vs. Rice: Will the Dayak Fields Lose Their Soul?
During the New Order, the Dayak were not even considered in national development policies. However, despite being overlooked, they advanced in education and economic standing—largely due to the critical role played by the Church and missionary efforts. These institutions provided educational opportunities and economic empowerment, enabling the Dayak to rise above decades of discrimination and reclaim their place in modern Indonesian society.
Today, the Dayak people continue to progress, particularly in education, finance, and politics. They have established their own higher education institution, the Institut Teknologi Keling Kumang in Sekadau, promoting academic excellence and self-reliance. In financial literacy, the Credit Union movement has empowered communities, fostering economic independence and resilience.
Politically, the Dayak have also gained significant representation, with dozens of district heads (bupati), regional secretaries (Sekda), two deputy governors, and numerous members of the Indonesian House of Representatives (DPR RI) in Senayan.
The Economic and Social Rise of the Dayak People in the Palm Oil Era
Today, many Dayak people have built their livelihoods around independent palm oil plantations, while others are employed by major palm oil companies in various roles, including as workers, foremen, administrative staff, and security personnel. Although it remains rare for Dayak individuals to hold managerial positions or higher ranks within these corporations, the fact remains that the industry has absorbed them as a significant part of its workforce.
Read Palm Oil vs. Rice: Will the Dayak Fields Lose Their Soul?
The palm oil boom has undeniably elevated the economic status of the Dayak people. On one hand, it has provided financial stability and upward mobility, enabling many to achieve a level of prosperity previously unattainable. On the other hand, the Dayak have also expanded their presence in bureaucracy, government, and various professional fields, further solidifying their role in the region’s socio-economic landscape.
This transformation is particularly evident in Kalimantan, where the distinctions between the Dayak and the Chinese-Indonesian community have become increasingly blurred. Both groups now share similar standards of living—owning cars, enjoying financial security, and excelling in various trades and professions. The once-stark socioeconomic divide has diminished, symbolizing the Dayak’s growing integration into modern economic life while maintaining their unique cultural identity.
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